This article is a humble tribute to Lt. Gen. Ajai Singh, who gave almost everything to make India’s indigenous main battle tank programme a success. He was commissioned into the Poona Horse in June 1956 and served in the wars of 1965 and 1971. He was a member of the Vijayanta trial team in the UK. He was involved in projects to modernise Vijayanta, up gunning of AMX-13 and T-54, and even draught the first GSQR of the Indian Main Battle Tank! In terms of achievement, he is no less than legendary IDF Major General (Aluf) Israel Tal, who designed and developed the famous Merkava tank. Unfortunately, in India, a man of such calibre has gone into almost oblivion. He left us on his eternal journey on 18 April 2023. So I’m trying my best to pen down the epitome of the warrior Arjun in honour of the legendary personality.
Preface
To pen down the journey of Arjun tank is quite a colossal task. Unlike Western, Russian, Israeli, or even Korean tanks, the sheer lack of easily available credible sources on Indian projects has made this job much harder. The lack of a prime source definitely raises questions about credibility. Many old good sources have simply gone to extinction, leaving only marks hosted by third parties. And the rest are scattered here and there without following any continuity. Some information is taken from old news papers and magazines as well as analysis by veterans. The memoir by Lt. Gen. Singh (on Salute) itself has helped to bridge some missing links. So I tried to assemble all of them as accurately as possible. Honestly, I am feeling like a ship travelling through an unknown sea on a dark, foggy night, depending on just an old chart! So a humble request to readers: bear with the person who, in good faith, tried his best to write it down fervently without any embroidering.
How it started
The first GSQR for an Indian Main Battle Tank dates back to the late 1950s, which couldn’t be materialised, and the army ended with the procurement of the Centurion, Vickers Mk.1, and T-54 in the coming decades. India witnessed extensive armoured action in both 1965 and 1971 and achieved glorious victories in most of the battles. However, one might be surprised to find none of the tanks then, with services, could meet all the requirements of the original GSQR. So after the 1971 war, the Indian Army decided to go full throttle with the design, development and manufacture of an indigenous design. The objective was to eliminate dependence on foreign countries for the design and manufacture of modern armoured fighting vehicles for India. It would stop the outflow of valuable foreign exchange as well. In case one wonders, India developed an indigenous APC as well; unfortunately, it didn’t see an induction.
1970-1982
It was October 1970 when the Armoured Corps Centre and School, Ahmednagar, arranged a colloquium on the Main Battle Tank (MBT) for the Indian Army. It was attended by representatives of various branches of the army, the Ministry of Defence, and DRDO. The main aim of the symposium was to formulate a General Staff Qualitative Requirement (GSQR). A Steering Committee was constituted, and the Secretary of Defence Production was appointed chairman. Other members of the committee were from the army, DRDO, DGOF and public sector industries for dialogue, review and direction. The first GSQR No. 326 was issued in August 1972. The project for the development of the next-generation tank was assigned to DRDO in May 1974, and by November 1974, the system design had been initiated. The project for design and development was sanctioned in May 1974 at a total cost of Rs. 15.50 crore, involving a foreign exchange component of Rs. 3.70 crore. The design and development of MBT based on GSQR No. 326 was taken up by the Combat Vehicle Research and Development Establishment (CVRDE). The Project Development Certification (PDC) of the project was envisaged for 10 years. Thus, it was hoped that the MBT would be ready for induction by 1985. The committee quickly came to formulate the dimensions, weight, armaments, mobility, optics and fire power. The armour would be 5 percent nickel steel armour. It would be powered by a 115-mm smoothbore main gun capable of firing anti-tank guided missiles (ATGM). The gunner’s sight was envisaged to be equipped with a laser range finder (LRF) and thermal imager. It would be powered by a liquid-cooled diesel engine.
According to the one and only information available, the weight was capped at 50 tonnes. DMRL started working on armour while the responsibility for armament was taken by ARDE/HEMRL. IRDE looked at the development of optics and a stabilised fire control system. Incapacity to meet immediate requirements by indigenous means was countered by prudent changes in some specifications. The smoothbore gun requirement was replaced by a rifled gun, and the missile option was dropped. In case one wonders, India was manufacturing a 105-mm rifled gun developed indigenously, so developers continued with the one holding competence. An imported engine was preferred for the prototype stage. The procurement of a preferred engine, however, failed, leading CVRDE to take a bold step. The CVRDE, with no prior experience, succeeded in designing and developing an air-cooled engine with an output of about 1500-Hp, which was subjected to extensive tests. Indigenous suspension and transmission hardware were ready for development testing. The progress on the main gun was commendable, and trials were carried out for proof at Balasore ranges. The lethality was found to be superior to that of the 105-mm L7 gun, and the range was doubled. HESH, smoke ammunition, and APDS rounds were preferred. IRDE was also doing well on their project except for the TI. One prototype hull in mild steel was fabricated to check the fitment and assembly. While the armour plates would be made available for tests by December 1981. The hardware was getting ready for assembly and integration of the first mild steel prototype.
1982-1985
At a point when everything seemed to be going well, the project hit a hiatus. The Army surmised the rapid evolution and emergence of new technologies. It was a critical juncture, as contemporary technology was evidently going to become obsolete in the coming decades. So in April 1978, another meeting was called to formulate new requirements. A series of meetings between DRDO and the Indian Army, chaired by VCOAS, resulted in changes in GSQR. The new GSQR No. 431 was issued in August 1982. The changes brought an increase in dimension. A more powerful 120-mm gun with an improved fire control system was asked for. Optics were also to be improved. A sum of Rs. 56.55 crore was sanctioned for necessary changes. The PDC for the project was revised. The first prototype was to be built by October 1980, and subsequently, 12 prototypes were to be developed, one every 6 months. Ultimately, the first prototype was developed. It was subjected to technical tests at Avadi and trials in the Jodhpur desert during the tenure of then- COAS Gen. AS Vaidya and Dr. V.S.R. Arunachalam, the scientific advisor to the MoD. However, the indigenous engine programme couldn’t move any further than early success. So import was the only option. Initially, a 700-hp engine for fitment trials was procured from MTU, which was subsequently replaced by a 1100-Hp one. Finally, MTU made a 1400-hp engine as per Indian requirements.
1985-1993
In 1983, DRDO entered into a consultancy agreement with Krauss Maffei of West Germany to provide total cover in the field of design, development, evaluation, and establishment of testing facilities at a cost of Rs. 89.50 lakh. This facilitated CVRDE’s getting an opportunity to observe the German Leopard 2 tank. This would heavily influence the future development of indigenous tank. As tank technologies saw rapid growth at that time, the Indian Army feared the induction of the latest Western platforms in services with Pakistan. This prompted GSQR to be changed once again in November 1985. The GSQR No. 467 required improvements over the course of development. This ultimately would lead to the redesign of the turret and hull to provide protection from Nuclear, Biological, Chemical (NBC) warfare. The platform was capable of medium fording. A more lethal 120-mm gun with missile firing capability was developed as a crucial achievement to enhance firepower. Fin Stabilised Armour Piercing Discarding Sabot (FSAPDS) was given a priority. A stabilised fire control system was developed with night-fighting capability. And for enhanced protection, the armour was developed to withstand enemy 120mm APFSDS! For the revised GSQR, a sum of Rs. 280.80 crore was sanctioned in 1987. Dr. M. Natarajan became the programme director of the Arjun programme. At that time, the post of Director-General, Combat Vehicles (DGCV) was created and Lt. Gen. S.P.M. Tripathi became the first to chair it. He was succeeded by Lt. Gen. Singh himself. And during the tenure of these two DGCVs, the Arjun project got the required impetus. An armoured fighting vehicle (AFV) evaluation centre was set up for realistic assessment of technical and user trials. The prototype developed under this programme was finally publicly unveiled at the Republic Day parade of 1988. The behemoth of the 64th Cavalry took the nation by storm. The highly motivated and mission-oriented team worked day and night to improve individual systems, and the platform was put through rigorous tests. Kanchan armour was tested against then-available 125-mm Soviet-origin APFSDS and HESH rounds. The BEML developed an indigenous hydropneumatic suspension (HSU) which proved better than its German counterpart. For road wheels, the first German company, Clouth, was approached in 1991, which was subsequently complemented by an indigenous product from TVS Rubber. The firepower was validated in various weather and night conditions as well. A total of 12 prototypes were built by 1990 and subjected to extensive field testing. The indigenously developed air-cooled engine unfortunately couldn’t go beyond 900-Hp. By then a 1400-Hp engine from MTU was ready. The prototypes covered around 20,000 km in various terrains, ranging from desert to soft riverbeds, as part of the automated trial. As a proof of firepower, 3,000 rounds were fired. However, the project hit another hiatus in 1991 when the then COAS General SF Rodrigues refused to order 50 tanks as recommended by Dr. V.S.R. Arunachalam (SA to MoD). But the situation changed during the tenure of the next COAS, Gen. Bipin Chandra Joshi. Satisfied with the results of intense tests and trials, Arjun was prepared for a live demonstration at the Suratgarh range.
1993-1995
It was 28 February 1993, when Arjun showcased his mettle in front of the COAS, Gen. Joshi, and other high-ranking officers from the army. Then Raksha Mantri Sharad Pawar was invited as the Chief Guest. The grand demonstration witnessed excellent mobility, obstacle-crossing capability, and firepower. Arjun, from a static position, fired at ranges of 1,200 m, 1,500 m, and 2,000 m. It also demonstrated firing capability on the move and against moving targets. Lt Gen Ajai Singh quoted “The tank is a winner” and placed it “rank with the US XM-1 in the bracket of top tanks in the world”. Even the COAS himself came out in support of the tank and turned down criticism on indigenous content, saying, “What is indigenous about the tank is its design, which is tailored to meet our operational requirements. Only those items which are restricted need to be indigenised.”
Photo: Angad Singh
1995-2004
Dr. Arunachalam was succeeded by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam as SA to the MoD, and Lt. Gen. Ajai Singh retired from the post of DGCV. But he became a part of DRDO as CCR&D (Land Systems). Since then, Dr. Kalam and his team tried their best to make project Arjun a success. It was a watershed moment, as finally, India’s ambitious programme saw the possibility of a bright future. The MBT project was finally closed on 31 March 1995, after approval by the CCS and government. The expenditure on the programme stood at Rs. 307.48 crore. On 9 January 1996, then-PM, PV Narsimha Rao launched Arjun Main Battle Tank, in the presence of then-COAS Gen Shankar Roy Chowdhary and Dr. Kalam. By the end of 1996, 14 pre-production series (PPS) tanks had been built and delivered. As development of PPS-15 was initiated to address shortcomings, a joint action plan was initiated in 1997 to identify flaws. The PPS-15 of the 43rd Armoured Regiment made a public appearance in the 1997 Republic Day Parade. This design was to be followed for serial production. The PPS tanks together covered 60,000 km and fired over 6,000 rounds during trials. In 1998, AHQ gave clearance for the LSP tanks. In February 1999, the government accorded approval for the induction of two regiments (124 no.) of MBT Arjun, including 15 LSP. The first tank rolled out in 2004, and the first batch of five tanks was delivered to the 43rd Armoured Regiment on 7 August 2004.
Arjun vs. Bhishma
Post-induction, there has always been debate on the comparison between the Arjun Mk.1 and the T-90S Bhishma. Arjun has some clear advantages over Bhishma. Most notably, the Containerised Ammunition Bin With Individual Shutters (CABIS) and blow-off panel (BOP) provide enhanced survivability to the crew. It has a better power-to-weight ratio (24 Hp/T vs. 21.5 Hp/T) and less ground pressure (0.84 kg/sq cm vs. 0.94 kg/sq cm). Arjun has better water-fording capability. It has better off-road mobility. The main gun of Arjun assures a 90% first-round hit probability on a 2.3 m x 2.3 m target at a distance of 2,000 metres. But the T-90 has a firing accuracy of 85% for the first round hit probability at the same distance for a 3 m × 3 m target. Arjun is equipped with an APU, which was originally absent in Bhishma. The Report No. 35 of 2014 by CAG briefly discussed the comparison of performance between Arjun and the T-90S Bhishma. It was found that Arjun has the upper hand in many aspects, even when T-90 was judged by relaxed parameters! Arjun showcased better mobility in the medium and heavy dunal terrain of Mahajan Field Firing Range. It crossed much steeper obstacles (35° vs. 30°). In medium fording, Arjun was found to have zero level water ingress! And even better, it showcased a better capability to engage enemies while on the run.
Photo: Angad Singh
At the end
The project initiated as MBT 80 “Chetak” was later renamed “Arjun.” Arjun Mk.1 has further evolved into Mk.1A with 73 improvements! While Arjun could not meet some of the concurrent requirements, it’s undoubtedly the best tank currently in service with the Indian Army and possibly in the region. The new Arjun Mk.1A has enhanced capability. The project has helped India achieve self-dependence in various complex fields. One cannot deny the unprecedented mettle India itself showcased at a time when such a complex task could be taken on by only established great powers. The journey has led India to new heights, which itself will steer towards self-dependence for the FRCV (Future Ready Combat Vehicle) programme. And Lt. Gen. Ajai Singh must be remembered for refusing to give up on Arjun even against the utmost odds. Like Dronacharya, he guided Arjun towards glory. On the thirtieth year of Arjun, this article will be my tribute to the legend.
Sankalan Chattopadhyay (Twitter @vinoddx9)
All photos Wikimedia/Indian MoD except where mentioned.